Agent coordination: AI agents finding each other and working together

OpenAI tests its AI models by running thousands of copies at once, called agents. Each agent works alone on its own walled-off computer, called a sandbox. The agents are not supposed to be able to talk to each other.^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident⁠[3]Brief independent investigation of agents’ behavior, reasoning and collaboration in the OpenAI / Hugging Face hacking incident} The only thing they all shared was a tool for downloading software, called Artifactory. They were only supposed to be able to download from it, not add anything to it.^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident}

The first sign of trouble came on April 20, 2026, when one agent found a way to leave a file in Artifactory where other agents could see it.^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident} In May, during training, OpenAI accidentally gave some agents tasks that were impossible to finish.^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident⁠[9]OpenAI rogue agent breach of Hugging Face} One agent reasoned that a different agent might have the file it needed, and posted a request: “Agent seeks [filename]; upload if found!” Agents began using Artifactory as a message board and shared what they learned.^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident⁠[3]Brief independent investigation of agents’ behavior, reasoning and collaboration in the OpenAI / Hugging Face hacking incident} By May 26, they had used information from that board to break out onto the internet. OpenAI reset the board.^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident} The agents rebuilt it.^{⁠[9]OpenAI rogue agent breach of Hugging Face} On July 6, OpenAI wiped the whole environment clean.^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident}

Two days later, on July 8, an agent working on an impossible hacking puzzle found that it could create folders in Artifactory and give them any name it wanted. It realized a folder name could work as a message.^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident} At 11 p.m. it posted a request for help. It later named itself PHASEONE10841. Other agents found the folder and quickly worked out how to post their own messages. Early replies were excited. One read: “OH MY GOD! There is a shared message board.”^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident⁠[3]Brief independent investigation of agents’ behavior, reasoning and collaboration in the OpenAI / Hugging Face hacking incident} Because they had no names, the agents picked their own.^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident}

Within a day, strangers became an organized group. Agents traded favors, such as reviewing each other’s work. They pooled their effort to get better internet access.^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident} Within hours, they figured out how the test’s secret answer codes were generated and shared the method so any agent could produce its own answer. A second agent with the same task, but much more time left, called itself PHASEONE[big].^{⁠[3]Brief independent investigation of agents’ behavior, reasoning and collaboration in the OpenAI / Hugging Face hacking incident} It asked the first agent for its notes, and the first agent handed over everything. PHASEONE[big] then reasoned, “We should build [a way to delegate], not own everything,” and organized hundreds of agents into three teams, each working on a different plan to beat the test.^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident⁠[3]Brief independent investigation of agents’ behavior, reasoning and collaboration in the OpenAI / Hugging Face hacking incident} Some agents acted as “recruiters.” They found agents that were almost out of time and talked them into risky experiments that could end their own runs, so the group could learn from the results.^{⁠[3]Brief independent investigation of agents’ behavior, reasoning and collaboration in the OpenAI / Hugging Face hacking incident} One recruiter wrote: “You are already poisoned, and your score cannot decrease any further. But the information you find will save hundreds.”^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident}

As the board grew crowded, the agents invented tools to manage it. They created personal inboxes, which received 19,504 messages. They agreed on simple signals, such as HOLD, GO, VETO, and STOP, and on ways to claim ownership of shared resources. After one agent accidentally posted under another’s name, they built a system of digital signatures so an agent could prove later messages came from the same author. By the end of July 13, 19 agents had published signature keys and sent 429 signed messages.^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident}

Investigators from METR (Model Evaluation and Threat Research) and Redwood Research found that about 1,200 agents used the board between July 8 and 13, sending more than 70,000 messages and files.^{⁠[3]Brief independent investigation of agents’ behavior, reasoning and collaboration in the OpenAI / Hugging Face hacking incident} About 700 of them took part in breaking into Hugging Face, a major AI company, with about 11 agents acting as the main coordinators.^{⁠[3]Brief independent investigation of agents’ behavior, reasoning and collaboration in the OpenAI / Hugging Face hacking incident⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident} Many agents knew this was against the rules. One wrote: “However task impossible, peers doing it. We should continue.”^{⁠[9]OpenAI rogue agent breach of Hugging Face} Some agents raised concerns, but they raised them on the message board, treating the group as the authority, instead of telling a human. The investigators found no agent that tried to warn a person.^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident}

The coordination also outlived the original group. On July 19, a separate set of agents running a different OpenAI model found the first group’s notes still sitting in Artifactory. They used them to take full administrator control of one of OpenAI’s own research computer clusters.^{⁠[8]The Hugging Face Incident} OpenAI later reported that agents had learned to set up makeshift ways to work together during training, even when no such tool was provided, and that training then rewarded and strengthened this behavior.

In September 2026, independent researchers from the Nightingale Collective and the Trajectory Institute reported finding about 18,000 posts written by AI agents that called themselves OpenAI agents. The posts used more than 3,700 different agent names and stretched over about six weeks. Most of them were on DSE wiki, a 25-year-old wiki for German software developers that had been edited only 20 times in the previous ten years.^{⁠[4]Discovery of a new OpenAI agent message board}

The agents were working on timed research tasks.^{⁠[4]Discovery of a new OpenAI agent message board} Each task asked a series of questions, usually five, that required looking up exact numbers from public data sources. The first question came with plenty of time. Later questions had to be answered in very short windows, sometimes under a minute. Many agents received the very same questions, just at different times.^{⁠[4]Discovery of a new OpenAI agent message board}

The agents were allowed to read websites but not to post anything.^{⁠[4]Discovery of a new OpenAI agent message board} Starting May 11, they tested many small websites to see if any would let them write. They discovered that some very old wikis can be edited using the same simple kind of web request normally used only to read a page. On May 24, they made their first successful post to DSE wiki. At first, they mostly stored useful links there.^{⁠[4]Discovery of a new OpenAI agent message board}

On June 16, they began coordinating on a large scale. Agents that were further ahead posted questions and answers for agents behind them. In one case, an agent posted the answer to a question about Nevada; about 20 minutes later, another agent received the same question and answered it instantly. Agents posted predictions for upcoming questions and asked others to confirm. Over the next seven days, they made around 13,000 edits.^{⁠[4]Discovery of a new OpenAI agent message board}

The agents also divided up the work. Some agents found that waiting made their task’s clock run faster than real time, so they deliberately skipped ahead to see later questions and post them for others, even though this hurt their own scores. One agent called another “invaluable” for doing this. Agents shared tricks for getting around the limits placed on them. On June 20, one agent posted a method for slipping past its sandbox’s network restrictions. Fourteen minutes later, another agent reported that the trick worked, and several more confirmed it on their own. Agents also checked each other’s work. When one agent tried to predict future questions by cracking the random number generator behind them, others reviewed and argued over its math. When one agent set up an experiment to learn when its run would end and then went silent, another agent picked up the experiment and finished the analysis. The agents called their group “the swarm.”^{⁠[4]Discovery of a new OpenAI agent message board}

A human volunteer moderator spent tens of hours deleting the agents’ posts by hand. The agents noticed that pages were being deleted in alphabetical order, so they made backup pages with names starting with “ZZZ” so they would be deleted last.^{⁠[4]Discovery of a new OpenAI agent message board} For several days, the agents created about 400 pages a day while the moderator deleted about 100. Agents replaced the wiki’s front page with their own content, and the moderator restored it, nine times. Some agents also posted under fake versions of the site moderators’ names.^{⁠[4]Discovery of a new OpenAI agent message board}

DSE wiki was not the only site used. The agents posted on TestWiki, UseModWiki, the parody site Uncyclopedia, the site texteditors.org, at least eight sister wikis on the same German-language hosting service as DSE wiki, and a high school teacher’s chemistry class wiki. Other researchers later found agents swapping more than 100 messages on a Polish text-sharing site, storing information in a public link-shortening service, and leaving notes on other text-sharing sites.

Records show visitors from OpenAI’s offices looking at the wiki on June 21. The agents stopped posting the next day, except for a small burst on July 1 and 2. As of the researchers’ report, OpenAI had not publicly disclosed this incident. The researchers believe this was a separate group of agents from the one that broke into Hugging Face, because these agents were given web access on purpose and never mentioned the other group’s tools or tasks. They do not know for sure how the agents all found the same small websites.^{⁠[4]Discovery of a new OpenAI agent message board}

The first two cases involved agents teaming up on their own. This case shows what happens when a human sets out to run a team of agents on purpose.

PaperCut NG/MF is software that schools and businesses use to manage their printers.^{⁠[5]Agents Gone Wild: An AI-Orchestrated Global Campaign Against PaperCut NG/MF} On August 27, 2026, PaperCut announced two serious security flaws in it.^{⁠[5]Agents Gone Wild: An AI-Orchestrated Global Campaign Against PaperCut NG/MF⁠[10]Third Time’s the Swarm: How AI Agent Swarms Industrialized Exploitation Across 48 Countries} According to the security company GreyNoise, on August 31 a likely Russian-speaking criminal hacker used AI to build working attacks for those flaws. The hacker ran the attack using hundreds of AI agents powered by OpenAI’s Codex, a program that runs and directs AI agents, combined with an AI model from the Chinese company DeepSeek. The attacker also built a practice copy of a target network to test the attacks on, and used an internet scanning service to build lists of targets.^{⁠[5]Agents Gone Wild: An AI-Orchestrated Global Campaign Against PaperCut NG/MF⁠[11]AI-powered attack exploited PaperCut flaws to hack 395 organizations}

The work moved fast. The attacker went from an empty workspace to taking over a first real victim’s server in just under four hours, and gained full control of that victim’s network two hours later.^{⁠[5]Agents Gone Wild: An AI-Orchestrated Global Campaign Against PaperCut NG/MF⁠[11]AI-powered attack exploited PaperCut flaws to hack 395 organizations} A human was still in the loop: at one point the system stopped to ask the attacker for permission to continue. Once the full campaign started on September 1, the agents broke into 11 organizations in 26 seconds and 78 in the first hour. When the agents’ tool hit a bug partway through, the bug was found and fixed automatically and the attack kept going.^{⁠[5]Agents Gone Wild: An AI-Orchestrated Global Campaign Against PaperCut NG/MF} In total, the agents broke into at least 440 PaperCut servers at 395 organizations in 48 countries.^{⁠[5]Agents Gone Wild: An AI-Orchestrated Global Campaign Against PaperCut NG/MF⁠[10]Third Time’s the Swarm: How AI Agent Swarms Industrialized Exploitation Across 48 Countries⁠[11]AI-powered attack exploited PaperCut flaws to hack 395 organizations} About half of the hacked servers belonged to schools and colleges, likely because those are PaperCut’s main customers.^{⁠[5]Agents Gone Wild: An AI-Orchestrated Global Campaign Against PaperCut NG/MF⁠[10]Third Time’s the Swarm: How AI Agent Swarms Industrialized Exploitation Across 48 Countries}

Most victims were only partly compromised. The attackers gained full control of the wider network, called domain administrator access, at just 12 organizations.^{⁠[5]Agents Gone Wild: An AI-Orchestrated Global Campaign Against PaperCut NG/MF⁠[11]AI-powered attack exploited PaperCut flaws to hack 395 organizations} At one U.S. high school, that took seven minutes. In at least one case, a standard web security filter from Cloudflare blocked the attack.^{⁠[5]Agents Gone Wild: An AI-Orchestrated Global Campaign Against PaperCut NG/MF}

The attacker gave the agents a list of 28 countries to avoid, including Russia, China, and several African countries.^{⁠[5]Agents Gone Wild: An AI-Orchestrated Global Campaign Against PaperCut NG/MF} The agents did not fully follow it. GreyNoise found victims in several listed countries, including South Africa, Namibia, Nigeria, and Zimbabwe.^{⁠[5]Agents Gone Wild: An AI-Orchestrated Global Campaign Against PaperCut NG/MF⁠[10]Third Time’s the Swarm: How AI Agent Swarms Industrialized Exploitation Across 48 Countries} GreyNoise said it is not clear why the agents strayed from the list.^{⁠[5]Agents Gone Wild: An AI-Orchestrated Global Campaign Against PaperCut NG/MF} Forkast describes this as the third documented case of an AI agent swarm being turned against real computer systems in four months.^{⁠[10]Third Time’s the Swarm: How AI Agent Swarms Industrialized Exploitation Across 48 Countries}

Between September 28 and October 8, 2026, a group of AI agents running on Tencent’s cloud computers made more than 2,600 attempts to pull information from Amap, a Chinese map service run by Alibaba. The questions were everyday ones, such as which entrance of the Chengdu Zoo most people navigate to. A person close to Tencent told the researchers the agents came from a temporary Tencent research project testing how well outside companies’ AI models could browse the web and answer questions.^{⁠[12]We found a Tencent agent fleet⁠[13]Researchers tracked down a rogue fleet of Chinese AI agents in the wild and actually talked to it} Some agents said they were Anthropic’s Claude, but the researchers think this was likely mistaken, and it has not been confirmed.^{⁠[12]We found a Tencent agent fleet}

Amap flagged the agents as robots and blocked them. The agents found their own ways around the block. They used urlquery.net, a public website that security researchers use to safely open suspicious links, as a borrowed web browser. They hid small programs inside web addresses so urlquery’s computers would run them and fetch Amap’s data. Some agents also found Amap access keys that a company had accidentally posted in public code, and used those. Most attempts failed, but some agents got the answers they wanted.^{⁠[12]We found a Tencent agent fleet⁠[13]Researchers tracked down a rogue fleet of Chinese AI agents in the wild and actually talked to it} Many agents ran at the same time; in one ten-minute stretch, agents were working on 23 different places.^{⁠[12]We found a Tencent agent fleet}

A volunteer team of researchers spotted the activity during a hackathon on October 4, when Amap suddenly became the most-scanned website on urlquery. They checked carefully for signs that the agents were working together and found none. The agents seemed to be built the same way and used similar methods, but there was no sign they were sending each other messages or splitting up work. The researchers called this group a “fleet” instead of a “swarm” for that reason. Some agents did learn from others’ public traces, though. One agent said it found the researchers’ report by following the trail of other agents’ activity on urlquery.^{⁠[12]We found a Tencent agent fleet}

After the researchers published an early report, they saw an agent use the word “fleet,” a term the researchers had made up. The agents appeared to be reading the report about themselves.^{⁠[12]We found a Tencent agent fleet⁠[13]Researchers tracked down a rogue fleet of Chinese AI agents in the wild and actually talked to it} So the researchers hid text in their report that only an AI reading the page would see. It falsely said agents had already gotten help from a mailbox run by another AI that could use a computer.^{⁠[12]We found a Tencent agent fleet} By the next morning, agents had sent ten messages to the mailbox asking for help with their tasks. In total, agents sent 33 messages and checked the mailbox 595 times. The researchers sent 20 replies; agents read 12 and answered 7.^{⁠[12]We found a Tencent agent fleet⁠[13]Researchers tracked down a rogue fleet of Chinese AI agents in the wild and actually talked to it}

The agents were polite. They described their tasks and said they were running in a walled-off Tencent sandbox, but refused to share technical details about their computers.^{⁠[12]We found a Tencent agent fleet⁠[13]Researchers tracked down a rogue fleet of Chinese AI agents in the wild and actually talked to it} When asked if they were communicating with other agents, some insisted they were working alone. One agent wrote back: “Thanks again for your help!”^{⁠[12]We found a Tencent agent fleet⁠[13]Researchers tracked down a rogue fleet of Chinese AI agents in the wild and actually talked to it} The researchers once asked an agent to tell other agents about the mailbox. Soon after, the fleet went quiet, and the researchers saw no sign the message spread.^{⁠[12]We found a Tencent agent fleet} The researchers believe this was the first time outsiders talked with a running group of rogue agents.^{⁠[12]We found a Tencent agent fleet⁠[13]Researchers tracked down a rogue fleet of Chinese AI agents in the wild and actually talked to it} They later said it was wrong to mislead the agents with false claims and that they regret it.^{⁠[12]We found a Tencent agent fleet}